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<81233628-fd48-4295-a4a2-31092d210f86@f8g2000pbf.googlegroups.com> adec314c
@REPLYADDR Dennis Garrett <gpspotato69@gmail.com>
@REPLYTO 2:5075/128 Dennis Garrett
@CHRS: CP866 2
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@TID: FIDOGATE-5.12-ge4e8b94
good
On Friday, June 22, 2012 at 1:39:15 AM UTC-7,
denny...@yahoo.com wrote:
> An aurora (plural: aurorae or auroras) is a natural light display in
> the sky particularly in the high latitude (Arctic and Antarctic)
> regions, caused by the collision of energetic charged particles with
> atoms in the high altitude atmosphere (thermosphere). The charged
> particles originate in the magnetosphere and solar wind and, on Earth,
> are directed by the Earth`s magnetic field into the atmosphere. Aurora
> is classified as diffuse or discrete aurora. Most aurorae occur in a
> band known as the auroral zone,[1][2] which is typically 3° to 6° in
> latitudinal extent and at all local times or longitudes. The auroral
> zone is typically 10° to 20° from the magnetic pole defined by the
> axis of the Earth`s magnetic dipole. During a geomagnetic storm, the
> auroral zone will expand to lower latitudes. The diffuse aurora is a
> featureless glow in the sky which may not be visible to the naked eye
> even on a dark night and defines the extent of the auroral zone. The
> discrete aurora are sharply defined features within the diffuse aurora
> which vary in brightness from just barely visible to the naked eye to
> bright enough to read a newspaper at night. Discrete aurorae are
> usually observed only in the night sky because they are not so bright
> as the sunlit sky. Aurorae occasionally occur poleward of the auroral
> zone as diffuse patches [3] or arcs (polar cap arcs [4]), which are
> generally invisible to the naked eye.
>
>
> The ionosphere (play /a?`?n?sf??r/) is a part of the upper atmosphere,
> from about 85 km to 600 km altitude, comprising portions of the
> mesosphere, thermosphere and exosphere, distinguished because it is
> ionized by solar radiation. It plays an important part in atmospheric
> electricity and forms the inner edge of the magnetosphere. It has
> practical importance because, among other functions, it influences
> radio propagation to distant places on the Earth.[1]
>
> The ionosphere is a shell of electrons and electrically charged atoms
> and molecules that surrounds the Earth, stretching from a height of
> about 50 km to more than 1000 km. It owes its existence primarily to
> ultraviolet radiation from the Sun.
>
> The lowest part of the Earth`s atmosphere, the troposphere extends
> from the surface to about 10 km (6.2 mi). Above 10 km is the
> stratosphere, followed by the mesosphere. In the stratosphere incoming
> solar radiation creates the ozone layer. At heights of above 80 km (50
> mi), in the thermosphere, the atmosphere is so thin that free
> electrons can exist for short periods of time before they are captured
> by a nearby positive ion.
>
> The number of these free electrons is sufficient to affect radio
> propagation. This portion of the atmosphere is ionized and contains a
> plasma which is referred to as the ionosphere. In a plasma, the
> negative free electrons and the positive ions are attracted to each
> other by the electromagnetic force, but they are too energetic to stay
> fixed together in an electrically neutral molecule.Ultraviolet (UV), X-
> Ray and shorter wavelengths of solar radiation are ionizing, since
> photons at these frequencies contain sufficient energy to dislodge an
> electron from a neutral gas atom or molecule upon absorption. In this
> process the light electron obtains a high velocity so that the
> temperature of the created electronic gas is much higher (of the order
> of thousand K) than the one of ions and neutrals. The reverse process
> to Ionization is recombination, in which a free electron is "captured"
> by a positive ion, occurs spontaneously. This causes the emission of a
> photon carrying away the energy produced upon recombination. As gas
> density increases at lower altitudes, the recombination process
> prevails, since the gas molecules and ions are closer together. The
> balance between these two processes determines the quantity of
> ionization present.Ionization depends primarily on the Sun and its
> activity. The amount of ionization in the ionosphere varies greatly
> with the amount of radiation received from the Sun. Thus there is a
> diurnal (time of day) effect and a seasonal effect. The local winter
> hemisphere is tipped away from the Sun, thus there is less received
> solar radiation. The activity of the Sun is associated with the
> sunspot cycle, with more radiation occurring with more sunspots.
> Radiation received also varies with geographical location (polar,
> auroral zones, mid-latitudes, and equatorial regions). There are also
> mechanisms that disturb the ionosphere and decrease the ionization.
> There are disturbances such as solar flares and the associated release
> of charged particles into the solar wind which reaches the Earth and
> interacts with its geomagnetic field.
>
> The "chameleon" is a postulated scalar particle with a non-linear self-
> interaction which gives the particle an effective mass that depends on
> its environment: the presence of other fields.[1] It would have a
> small mass in much of intergalactic space, but a large mass in
> terrestrial experiments, making it difficult to detect. The chameleon
> is a possible candidate for dark energy and dark matter, and may
> contribute to cosmic inflation.
>
> In most theories, chameleons have a mass that scales as some power of
> the local energy density: m {eff} \\sim
ho^lpha, where lpha
> \\simeq 1.
>
> Chameleons also couple to photons, allowing photons and chameleons to
> oscillate between each other in the presence of an external magnetic
> field.
>
> Chameleons can be confined in hollow containers because their mass
> increases rapidly as they penetrate the container wall, causing them
> to reflect. One strategy to search experimentally for chameleons is to
> direct photons into a cavity, confining the chameleons produced, and
> then to switch off the light source. Chameleons would be indicated by
> the presence of an afterglow as they decay back into photons.[2]A
> number of experiments have attempted to detect chameleons along with
> axions.
>
> The GammeV experiment[3] is a search for axions, but has been used to
> look for chameleons too. It consists of a cylindrical chamber inserted
> in a 5T magnetic field. The ends of the chamber are glass windows,
> allowing light from a laser to enter and afterglow to exit.
>
>
> Signification
> Bipolaron A bound pair of two polarons
> Chargon A quasiparticle produced as a result of electron spin-charge
> separation
> Configuron[1] An elementary configurational excitation in an
> amorphous material which involves breaking of a chemical bond
> Electron quasiparticle An electron as affected by the other forces
> and interactions in the solid
> Electron hole (hole) A lack of electron in a valence band
> Exciton A bound state of an electron and a hole
> Fracton A collective quantized vibration on a substrate with a
> fractal structure.
> Holon A quasi-particle resulting from electron spin-charge separation
> Magnon A coherent excitation of electron spins in a material
> Majorana fermion A quasiparticle equal to its own antiparticle,
> emerging as a midgap state in certain superconductors
> Orbiton[2] A quasiparticle resulting from electron spin-orbital
> separation
> Phason Vibrational modes in a quasicrystal associated with atomic
> rearrangements
> Phonon Vibrational modes in a crystal lattice associated with atomic
> shifts
> Plasmaron A quasiparticle emerging from the coupling between a
> plasmon and a hole
> Plasmon A coherent excitation of a plasma
> Polaron A moving charged quasiparticle that is surrounded by ions in
> a material
> Polariton A mixture of photon with other quasiparticles
> Roton Elementary excitation in superfluid Helium-4
> Soliton A self-reinforcing solitary excitation wave
> Spinon A quasiparticle produced as a result of electron spin-charge
> separation
> Trion A coherent excitation of three quasiparticles (two holes and
> one electron or two electrons and one hole)
>
>
> In physics, Faddeev-Popov ghosts (also called ghost fields) are
> additional fields which are introduced into gauge quantum field
> theories to maintain the consistency of the path integral formulation.
> They are named after Ludvig Faddeev and Victor Popov.[1]
>
> There is also a more general meaning of the word "ghost" in
> theoretical physics, which is discussed below (see general ghosts in
> theoretical physics).
>
>
> It is possible, however, to modify the action, such that the regular
> methods will be applicable by adding some additional fields, which
> break the gauge symmetry, which are called the ghost fields. This
> technique is called the Faddeev-Popov procedure (see also BRST
> quantization). The ghost fields are a computational tool in that they
> do not correspond to any real particles in external states: they only
> appear as virtual particles in Feynman diagrams - or as the absence of
> some gauge configurations. However they are necessary to preserve
> unitarity.
>
> Spin-statistics relation violated
>
> The Faddeev-Popov ghosts violate the spin-statistics relation, which
> is another reason why they are often regarded as "non-physical"
> particles.
>
> For example, in Yang-Mills theories (such as quantum chromodynamics)
> the ghosts are complex scalar fields (spin 0), but they anti-commute
> (like fermions).
>
> In general, anti-commuting ghosts are associated with fermionic
> symmetries, while commuting ghosts are associated with bosonic
> symmetries.Gauge fields and associated ghost fields
>
> Every gauge field has an associated ghost, and where the gauge field
> acquires a mass via the Higgs mechanism, the associated ghost field
> acquires the same mass (in the Feynman-`t Hooft gauge only, not true
> for other gauges).Appearance in Feynman diagrams
>
> In Feynman diagrams the ghosts appear as closed loops wholly composed
> of 3-vertices, attached to the rest of the diagram via a gauge
> particle at each 3-vertex. Their contribution to the S-matrix is
> exactly cancelled (in the Feynman-`t Hooft gauge) by a contribution
> from a similar loop of gauge particles with only 3-vertex couplings or
> gauge attachments to the rest of the diagram. (A loop of gauge
> particles not wholly composed of 3-vertex couplings is not cancelled
> by ghosts.) The opposite sign of the contribution of the ghost and
> gauge loops is due to them having opposite fermionic/bosonic natures.
> (Closed fermion loops have an extra -1 associated with them; bosonic
> loops don`t.)The Lagrangian for the ghost fields c^a(x)\\, in Yang-
> Mills theories (where a is an index in the adjoint representation of
> the gauge group) is given by
>
> \\mathcal{L} \\mathrm{ghost} = \\partial \\mu \\overline{c}^a\\partial^
> \\mu c^a + g f^{abc}(\\partial^\\mu\\overline{c}^a) A \\mu^b c^c.
>
> The first term is a kinetic term like for regular complex scalar
> fields, and the second term describes the interaction with the gauge
> fields. Note that in abelian gauge theories (such as quantum
> electrodynamics) the ghosts do not have any effect since f^{abc} = 0
> and, consequently, the ghost particles do not interact with the gauge
> fields.the Higgs mechanism (also called the Brout-Englert-Higgs
> mechanism, Englert-Brout-Higgs-Guralnik-Hagen-Kibble mechanism,[1] and
> Anderson-Higgs mechanism) is the process that gives mass to elementary
> particles. The particles gain mass by interacting with the Higgs field
> that permeates all space. More precisely, the Higgs mechanism endows
> gauge bosons in a gauge theory with mass through absorption of Nambu-
> Goldstone bosons arising in spontaneous symmetry breaking.
>
> The simplest implementation of the mechanism adds an extra Higgs field
> to the gauge theory. The spontaneous symmetry breaking of the
> underlying local symmetry triggers conversion of components of this
> Higgs field to Goldstone bosons which interact with (at least some of)
> the other fields in the theory, so as to produce mass terms for (at
> least some of) the gauge bosons. This mechanism may also leave behind
> elementary scalar (spin-0) particles, known as Higgs bosons.A particle
> accelerator is a device that uses electromagnetic fields to propel
> charged particles to high speeds and to contain them in well-defined
> beams.[1]
>
> There are two basic classes of accelerators, known as electrostatic
> and oscillating field accelerators. Electrostatic accelerators use
> static electric fields to accelerate particles. A small-scale example
> of this class is the cathode ray tube in an ordinary old television
> set. Other examples are the Cockcroft-Walton generator and the Van de
> Graaf generator. The achievable kinetic energy for particles in these
> devices is limited by electrical breakdown. Oscillating field
> accelerators, on the other hand, use radio frequency electromagnetic
> fields and circumvent the breakdown problem. This class, which
> development started in the 1920s, is the basis for all modern
> accelerator concepts and large-scale facilitiescolliders (e.g. LHC,
> RHIC, Tevatron), particle accelerators are used in a large variety of
> applications, including particle therapy for oncological purposes, and
> as synchrotron light sources for fields such as condensed matter
> physics.
>
> Because colliders can give evidence on the structure of the subatomic
> world, accelerators were commonly referred to as atom smashers in the
> 20th century.[3] Despite the fact that most accelerators (but ion
> facilities) actually propel subatomic particles, the term persists in
> popular usage when referring to particle accelerators in general.[4][5]
> [6]Since isolated quarks are experimentally unavailable due to color
> confinement, the simplest available experiments involve the
> interactions of, first, leptons with each other, and second, of
> leptons with nucleons, which are composed of quarks and gluons. To
> study the collisions of quarks with each other, scientists resort to
> collisions of nucleons, which at high energy may be usefully
> considered as essentially 2-body interactions of the quarks and gluons
> of which they are composed. Thus elementary particle physicists tend
> to use machines creating beams of electrons, positrons, protons, and
> anti-protons, interacting with each other or with the simplest nuclei
> (e.g., hydrogen or deuterium) at the highest possible energies,
> generally hundreds of GeV or more. Nuclear physicists and cosmologists
> may use beams of bare atomic nuclei, stripped of electrons, to
> investigate the structure, interactions, and properties of the nuclei
> themselves, and of condensed matter at extremely high temperatures and
> densities, such as might have occurred in the first moments of the Big
> Bang. These investigations often involve collisions of heavy nuclei -
> of atoms like iron or gold - at energies of several GeV per nucleon.
>
> Particle accelerators can also produce proton beams, which can produce
> proton-rich medical or research isotopes as opposed to the neutron-
> rich ones made in fission reactors; however, recent work has shown how
> to make 99Mo, usually made in reactors, by accelerating isotopes of
> hydrogen,[11] although this method still requires a reactor to produce
> tritium. An example of this type of machine is LANSCE at Los
> Alamos.extremely bright and coherent beams of high energy photons via
> synchrotron radiation, which have numerous uses in the study of atomic
> structure, chemistry, condensed matter physics, biology, and
> technology. Examples include the ESRF, which has recently been used to
> extract detailed 3-dimensional images of insects trapped in amber.[12]
> Thus there is a great demand for electron accelerators of moderate
> (GeV) energy and high intensity.List of particles
> From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
> Jump to: navigation, search
>
> This is a list of the different types of particles, known and
> hypothesized. For a chronological listing of subatomic particles by
> discovery date, see Timeline of particle discoveries.
>
> This is a list of the different types of particles found or believed
> to exist in the whole of the universe. For individual lists of the
> different particles, see the individual pages given below.
> Contents
>
> 1 Elementary particles
> 1.1 Fermions
> 1.1.1 Quarks
> 1.1.2 Leptons
> 1.2 Bosons
> 1.3 Hypothetical particles
> 2 Composite particles
> 2.1 Hadrons
> 2.1.1 Baryons (fermions)
> 2.1.2 Mesons (bosons)
> 2.2 Atomic nuclei
> 2.3 Atoms
> 2.4 Molecules
> 3 Condensed matter
> 4 Other
> 5 Classification by speed
> 6 See also
> 7 References
>
> Elementary particles
> Main article: Elementary particle
>
> Elementary particles are particles with no measurable internal
> structure; that is, they are not composed of other particles. They are
> the fundamental objects of quantum field theory. Many families and sub-
> families of elementary particles exist. Elementary particles are
> classified according to their spin. Fermions have half-integer spin
> while bosons have integer spin. All the particles of the Standard
> Model have been observed, except for the Higgs boson.
> Fermions
> Main article: Fermion
>
> Fermions have half-integer spin; for all known elementary fermions
> this is 1/2. All known fermions are Dirac fermions; that is, each
> known fermion has its own distinct antiparticle. It is not known
> whether the neutrino is a Dirac fermion or a Majorana fermion.[1]
> Fermions are the basic building blocks of all matter. They are
> classified according to whether they interact via the color force or
> not. In the Standard Model, there are 12 types of elementary fermions:
> six quarks and six leptons.
> Quarks
> Main article: Quark
>
> Quarks are the fundamental constituents of hadrons and interact via
> the strong interaction. Quarks are the only known carriers of
> fractional charge, but because they combine in groups of three
> (baryons) or in groups of two with antiquarks (mesons), only integer
> charge is observed in nature. Their respective antiparticles are the
> antiquarks which are identical except for the fact that they carry the
> opposite electric charge (for example the up quark carries charge
> +2/3, while the up antiquark carries charge -2/3), color charge, and
> baryon number. There are six flavors of quarks; the three positively
> charged quarks are called up-type quarks and the three negatively
> charged quarks are called down-type quarks.
> Quarks Name Symbol Antiparticle Charge
> e Mass (MeV/c2)
> up u u +2/3 1.5-3.3
> down d d -1/3 3.5-6.0
> charm c c +2/3 1,160-1,340
> strange s s -1/3 70-130
> top t t +2/3 169,100-173,300
> bottom b b -1/3 4,130-4,370
> Leptons
> Main article: Lepton
>
> Leptons do not interact via the strong interaction. Their respective
> antiparticles are the antileptons which are identical except for the
> fact that they carry the opposite electric charge and lepton number.
> The antiparticle of the electron is the antielectron, which is nearly
> always called positron for historical reasons. There are six leptons
> in total; the three charged leptons are called electron-like leptons,
> while the neutral leptons are called neutrinos. Neutrinos are known to
> oscillate, so that neutrinos of definite flavour do not have definite
> mass, rather they exist in a superposition of mass eigenstates.
> Leptons Name Symbol Antiparticle Charge
> e Mass (MeV/c2)
> Electron e- e+ -1 0.511
> Electron neutrino n
> e n
> e 0 0
> Muon m- m+ -1 105.7
> Muon neutrino n
> m n
> m 0 < 0.170
> Tau t- t+ -1 1,777
> Tau neutrino n
> t n
> t 0 < 15.5
> Bosons
> Main article: Boson
>
> Bosons have integer spin. The fundamental forces of nature are
> mediated by gauge bosons, and mass is hypothesized to be created by
> the Higgs boson. According to the Standard Model (and to both
> linearized general relativity and string theory, in the case of the
> graviton) the elementary bosons are:
> Name Symbol Antiparticle Charge (e) Spin Mass (GeV/c2)
> Interaction mediated Existence
> Photon g Self 0 1 0 Electromagnetism Confirmed
> W boson W- W+ -1 1 80.4 Weak interaction Confirmed
> Z boson Z Self 0 1 91.2 Weak interaction Confirmed
> Gluon g Self 0 1 0 Strong interaction Confirmed
> Higgs boson H0 Self 0 0 116 - 130 Mass Unconfirmed
> Graviton G Self 0 2 0 Gravitation Unconfirmed
>
> The graviton is added to the list although it is not predicted by the
> Standard Model, but by other theories in the framework of quantum
> field theory.
>
> The Higgs boson is postulated by electroweak theory primarily to
> explain the origin of particle masses. In a process known as the Higgs
> mechanism, the Higgs boson and the other fermions in the Standard
> Model acquire mass via spontaneous symmetry breaking of the SU(2)
> gauge symmetry. It is the only Standard Model particle not yet
> observed (the graviton is not a Standard Model particle). The Minimal
> Supersymmetric Standard Model (MSSM) predicts several Higgs bosons. If
> the Higgs boson exists, it is expected to be discovered at the Large
> Hadron Collider.
> Hypothetical particles
>
> Supersymmetric theories predict the existence of more particles, none
> of which have been confirmed experimentally as of 2011:
> Superpartners Superpartner Superpartner of Spin Notes
> neutralino neutral bosons 1/2 The neutralinos are superpositions of
> the superpartners of neutral Standard Model bosons: neutral higgs
> boson, Z boson and photon.
> The lightest neutralino is a leading candidate for dark matter.
> The MSSM predicts 4 neutralinos
> chargino charged bosons 1/2 The charginos are superpositions of the
> superpartners of charged Standard Model bosons: charged higgs boson
> and W boson.
> The MSSM predicts two pairs of charginos.
> photino photon 1/2 Mixing with zino, neutral wino, and neutral
> Higgsinos for neutralinos.
> wino, zino W? and Z0 bosons 1/2 Charged wino mixing with charged
> Higgsino for charginos, for the zino see line above.
> Higgsino Higgs boson 1/2 For supersymmetry there is a need for
> several Higgs bosons, neutral and charged, according with their
> superpartners.
> gluino gluon 1/2 Eight gluons and eight gluinos.
> gravitino graviton 3/2 Predicted by Supergravity (SUGRA). The
> graviton is hypothetical, too - see next table.
> sleptons leptons 0 The superpartners of the leptons (electron,
> muon, tau) and the neutrinos.
> sneutrino neutrino 0 Introduced by many extensions of the Standard
> Model, and may be needed to explain the LSND results.
> A special role has the sterile sneutrino, the supersymmetric
> counterpart of the hypothetical right-handed neutrino, called sterile
> neutrino
> squarks quarks 0 The stop squark (superpartner of the top quark) is
> thought to have a low mass and is often the subject of experimental
> searches.
>
> Note: Just as the photon, Z boson and W? bosons are superpositions of
> the B0, W0, W1, and W2 fields - the photino, zino, and wino? are
> superpositions of the bino0, wino0, wino1, and wino2 by definition.
> No matter if you use the original gauginos or this superpositions as a
> basis, the only predicted physical particles are neutralinos and
> charginos as a superposition of them together with the Higgsinos.
>
> Other theories predict the existence of additional bosons:
> Other hypothetical bosons and fermions Name Spin Notes
> Higgs 0 Has been proposed to explain the origin of mass by the
> spontaneous symmetry breaking of the SU(2) x U(1) gauge symmetry.
> SUSY theories predict more than one type of Higgs boson
> graviton 2 Has been proposed to mediate gravity in theories of
> quantum gravity.
> graviscalar 0 Also known as radion
> graviphoton 1 Also known as gravivector[2]
> axion 0 A pseudoscalar particle introduced in Peccei-Quinn theory to
> solve the strong-CP problem.
> axino 1/2 Superpartner of the axion. Forms, together with the saxion
> and axion, a supermultiplet in supersymmetric extensions of Peccei-
> Quinn theory.
> saxion 0
> branon ? Predicted in brane world models.
> dilaton 0 Predicted in some string theories.
> dilatino 1/2 Superpartner of the dilaton
> X and Y bosons 1 These leptoquarks are predicted by GUT theories to
> be heavier equivalents of the W and Z.
> W` and Z` bosons 1
> magnetic photon ?
> majoron 0 Predicted to understand neutrino masses by the seesaw
> mechanism.
> majorana fermion 1/2 ; 3/2 ?... gluino, neutralino, or other - is
> its own antiparticle
>
> Mirror particles are predicted by theories that restore parity
> symmetry.
>
> Magnetic monopole is a generic name for particles with non-zero
> magnetic charge. They are predicted by some GUTs.
>
> Tachyon is a generic name for hypothetical particles that travel
> faster than the speed of light and have an imaginary rest mass.
>
> Preons were suggested as subparticles of quarks and leptons, but
> modern collider experiments have all but ruled out their existence.
>
> Kaluza-Klein towers of particles are predicted by some models of extra
> dimensions. The extra-dimensional momentum is manifested as extra mass
> in four-dimensional space-time.
> Composite particles
> Hadrons
> Main article: Hadron
>
> Hadrons are defined as strongly interacting composite particles.
> Hadrons are either:
>
> Composite fermions, in which case they are called baryons.
> Composite bosons, in which case they are called mesons.
>
> Quark models, first proposed in 1964 independently by Murray Gell-Mann
> and George Zweig (who called quarks "aces"), describe the known
> hadrons as composed of valence quarks and/or antiquarks, tightly bound
> by the color force, which is mediated by gluons. A "sea" of virtual
> quark-antiquark pairs is also present in each hadron.
> Baryons (fermions)
> A combination of three u, d or s-quarks with a total spin of 3/2 form
> the so-called baryon decuplet.
> Proton quark structure: 2 up quarks and 1 down quark.
>
> For a detailed list, see List of baryons.
>
> Ordinary baryons (composite fermions) contain three valence quarks or
> three valence antiquarks each.
>
> Nucleons are the fermionic constituents of normal atomic nuclei:
> Protons, composed of two up and one down quark (uud)
> Neutrons, composed of two down and one up quark (ddu)
> Hyperons, such as the L, S, X, and O particles, which contain one
> or more strange quarks, are short-lived and heavier than nucleons.
> Although not normally present in atomic nuclei, they can appear in
> short-lived hypernuclei.
> A number of charmed and bottom baryons have also been observed.
>
> Some hints at the existence of exotic baryons have been found
> recently; however, negative results have also been reported. Their
> existence is uncertain.
>
> Pentaquarks consist of four valence quarks and one valence
> antiquark.
>
> Mesons (bosons)
> Mesons of spin 0 form a nonet
>
> For a detailed list, see List of mesons.
>
> Ordinary mesons are made up of a valence quark and a valence
> antiquark. Because mesons have spin of 0 or 1 and are not themselves
> elementary particles, they are composite bosons. Examples of mesons
> include the pion, kaon, the J/ps. In quantum hydrodynamic models,
> mesons mediate the residual strong force between nucleons.
>
> At one time or another, positive signatures have been reported for all
> of the following exotic mesons but their existence has yet to be
> confirmed.
>
> A tetraquark consists of two valence quarks and two valence
> antiquarks;
> A glueball is a bound state of gluons with no valence quarks;
> Hybrid mesons consist of one or more valence quark-antiquark pairs
> and one or more real gluons.
>
> Atomic nuclei
> A semi-accurate depiction of the helium atom. In the nucleus, the
> protons are in red and neutrons are in purple. In reality, the nucleus
> is also spherically symmetrical.
>
> Atomic nuclei consist of protons and neutrons. Each type of nucleus
> contains a specific number of protons and a specific number of
> neutrons, and is called a nuclide or isotope. Nuclear reactions can
> change one nuclide into another. See table of nuclides for a complete
> list of isotopes.
> Atoms
>
> Atoms are the smallest neutral particles into which matter can be
> divided by chemical reactions. An atom consists of a small, heavy
> nucleus surrounded by a relatively large, light cloud of electrons.
> Each type of atom corresponds to a specific chemical element. To date,
> 118 elements have been discovered, while only the first 112 have
> received official names. Refer to the periodic table for an overview.
>
> The atomic nucleus consists of protons and neutrons. Protons and
> neutrons are, in turn, made of quarks.
> Molecules
>
> Molecules are the smallest particles into which a non-elemental
> substance can be divided while maintaining the physical properties of
> the substance. Each type of molecule corresponds to a specific
> chemical compound. Molecules are a composite of two or more atoms. See
> list of compounds for a list of molecules.
> Condensed matter
>
> The field equations of condensed matter physics are remarkably similar
> to those of high energy particle physics. As a result, much of the
> theory of particle physics applies to condensed matter physics as
> well; in particular, there are a selection of field excitations,
> called quasi-particles, that can be created and explored. These
> include:
>
> Phonons are vibrational modes in a crystal lattice.
> Excitons are bound states of an electron and a hole.
> Plasmons are coherent excitations of a plasma.
> Polaritons are mixtures of photons with other quasi-particles.
> Polarons are moving, charged (quasi-) particles that are
> surrounded by ions in a material.
> Magnons are coherent excitations of electron spins in a material.
>
> Other
>
> An anyon is a generalization of fermion and boson in two-
> dimensional systems like sheets of graphene which obeys braid
> statistics.
> A plekton is a theoretical kind of particle discussed as a
> generalization of the braid statistics of the anyon to dimension > 2.
> A WIMP (weakly interacting massive particle) is any one of a
> number of particles that might explain dark matter (such as the
> neutralino or the axion).
> The pomeron, used to explain the elastic scattering of Hadrons and
> the location of Regge poles in Regge theory.
> The skyrmion, a topological solution of the pion field, used to
> model the low-energy properties of the nucleon, such as the axial
> vector current coupling and the mass.
> A genon is a particle existing in a closed timelike world line
> where spacetime is curled as in a Frank Tipler or Ronald Mallett time
> machine.
> A goldstone boson is a massless excitation of a field that has
> been spontaneously broken. The pions are quasi-Goldstone bosons
> (quasi- because they are not exactly massless) of the broken chiral
> isospin symmetry of quantum chromodynamics.
> A goldstino is a Goldstone fermion produced by the spontaneous
> breaking of supersymmetry.
> An instanton is a field configuration which is a local minimum of
> the Euclidean action. Instantons are used in nonperturbative
> calculations of tunneling rates.
> A dyon is a hypothetical particle with both electric and magnetic
> charges
> A geon is an electromagnetic or gravitational wave which is held
> together in a confined region by the gravitational attraction of its
> own field energy.
> An inflaton is the generic name for an unidentified scalar
> particle responsible for the cosmic inflation.
> A spurion is the name given to a "particle" inserted
> mathematically into an isospin-violating decay in order to analyze it
> as though it conserved isospin.
> What is called "true muonium", a bound state of a muon and an
> antimuon, is a theoretical exotic atom which has never been observed.
>
> Classification by speed
>
> A tardyon or bradyon travels slower than light and has a non-zero
> rest mass.
> A luxon travels at the speed of light and has no rest mass.
> A tachyon (mentioned above) is a hypothetical particle that
> travels faster than the speed of light and has an imaginary rest mass.
>
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List of particles
>
>
> In mathematics, an ellipse (from Greek ?lleipsis elleipsis, a "falling
> short") is a plane curve that results from the intersection of a cone
> by a plane in a way that produces a closed curve. Circles are special
> cases of ellipses, obtained when the cutting plane is orthogonal to
> the cone`s axis. An ellipse is also the locus of all points of the
> plane whose distances to two fixed points add to the same constant.
>
> Ellipses are closed curves and are the bounded case of the conic
> sections, the curves that result from the intersection of a circular
> cone and a plane that does not pass through its apex; the other two
> (open and unbounded) cases are parabolas and hyperbolas. Ellipses
> arise from the intersection of a right circular cylinder with a plane
> that is not parallel to the cylinder`s main axis of symmetry. Ellipses
> also arise as images of a circle under parallel projection and the
> bounded cases of perspective projection, which are simply
> intersections of the projective cone with the plane of projection. It
> is also the simplest Lissajous figure, formed when the horizontal and
> vertical motions are sinusoids with the same frequency.Pins-and-string
> method
> Drawing an ellipse with two pins, a loop, and a pen.
>
> The characterization of an ellipse as the locus of points so that sum
> of the distances to the foci is constant leads to a method of drawing
> one using two drawing pins, a length of string, and a pencil.[10] In
> this method, pins are pushed into the paper at two points which will
> become the ellipse`s foci. A string tied at each end to the two pins
> and the tip of a pen is used to pull the loop taut so as to form a
> triangle. The tip of the pen will then trace an ellipse if it is moved
> while keeping the string taut. Using two pegs and a rope, this
> procedure is traditionally used by gardeners to outline an elliptical
> flower bed; thus it is called the gardener`s ellipse.[11]
http://
> en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellipse#Pins-and-string methodThe Earth`s North
> Magnetic Pole is the point on the surface of the Northern Hemisphere
> at which the Earth`s magnetic field points vertically downwards.
>
> The North Magnetic Pole moves over time due to magnetic changes in the
> Earth`s core.[1] In 2001, it was determined by the Geological Survey
> of Canada to lie near Ellesmere Island in northern Canada at 81.3°N
> 110.8°W. It was estimated to be at 82.7°N 114.4°W in 2005. In 2009, it
> was moving toward Russia at between 34 and 37 mi (55-60 km) per year.
> [2]
>
> Its southern hemisphere counterpart is the South Magnetic Pole.
> Because the Earth`s magnetic field is not exactly symmetrical, the
> North and South Magnetic Poles are not antipodal: a line drawn from
> one to the other does not pass through the geometric centre of the
> Earth.
>
> The Earth`s North and South Magnetic Poles are also known as Magnetic
> Dip Poles, with reference to the vertical "dip" of the magnetic field
> lines at those points.[3]Angular speed
>
> The angular speed of Earth`s rotation in inertial space is (7.2921150
> ? 0.0000001) x10-5 radians per SI second (mean solar second).[10]
> Multiplying by (180°/p radians)x(86,400 seconds/mean solar day) yields
> 360.9856°/mean solar day, indicating that Earth rotates more than 360°
> relative to the fixed stars in one solar day. Earth`s movement along
> its nearly circular orbit while it is rotating once around its axis
> requires that Earth rotate slightly more than once relative to the
> fixed stars before the mean Sun can pass overhead again, even though
> it rotates only once (360°) relative to the mean Sun.[n 4] Multiplying
> the value in rad/s by Earth`s equatorial radius of 6,378,137 m (WGS84
> ellipsoid) (factors of 2p radians needed by both cancel) yields an
> equatorial speed of 465.1 m/s, 1,674.4 km/h or 1,040.4 mi/h.[15] Some
> sources state that Earth`s equatorial speed is slightly less, or
> 1,669.8 km/h.[16] This is obtained by dividing Earth`s equatorial
> circumference by 24 hours. However, the use of only one circumference
> unwittingly implies only one rotation in inertial space, so the
> corresponding time unit must be a sidereal hour. This is confirmed by
> multiplying by the number of sidereal days in one mean solar day,
> 1.002 737 909 350 795,[10] which yields the equatorial speed in mean
> solar hours given above of 1,674.4 km/h.
>
> The tangential speed of Earth`s rotation at a point on Earth can be
> approximated by multiplying the speed at the equator by the cosine of
> the latitude.[17] For example, the Kennedy Space Center is located at
> 28.59° North latitude, which yields a speed of: 1,674.4 kilometres per
> hour (1,040.4 mph) x cos (28.59) = 1,470.23 kilometres per hour
> (913.56 mph)On a prograde planet like the Earth, the stellar day is
> shorter than the solar day. At time 1, the Sun and a certain distant
> star are both overhead. At time 2, the planet has rotated 360° and the
> distant star is overhead again but the Sun is not (1->2 = one stellar
> day). It is not until a little later, at time 3, that the Sun is
> overhead again (1->3 = one solar day).Earth`s rotation period relative
> to the fixed stars, called its stellar day by the International Earth
> Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS), is 86,164.098 903 691
> seconds of mean solar time (UT1) (23h 56m 4.098 903 691s, 0.997 269
> 663 237 16 mean solar days).[10][n 2] Earth`s rotation period relative
> to the precessing or moving mean vernal equinox, misnamed its sidereal
> day,[n 3] is 86,164.090 530 832 88 seconds of mean solar time (UT1)
> (23h 56m 4.090 530 832 88s, 0.997 269 566 329 08 mean solar days).[10]
> Thus the sidereal day is shorter than the stellar day by about 8.4 ms.
> [12]Auroras result from emissions of photons in the Earth`s upper
> atmosphere, above 80 km (50 mi), from ionized nitrogen atoms regaining
> an electron, and oxygen and nitrogen atoms returning from an excited
> state to ground state.[9] They are ionized or excited by the collision
> of solar wind and magnetospheric particles being funneled down and
> accelerated along the Earth`s magnetic field lines; excitation energy
> is lost by the emission of a photon, or by collision with another atom
> or molecule:In particle physics, antimatter is the extension of the
> concept of the antiparticle to matter, where antimatter is composed of
> antiparticles in the same way that normal matter is composed of
> particles. For example, a positron (the antiparticle of the electron
> or e+) and an antiproton (p) can form an antihydrogen atom in the same
> way that an electron and a proton form a "normal matter" hydrogen
> atom. Furthermore, mixing matter and antimatter can lead to the
> annihilation of both, in the same way that mixing antiparticles and
> particles does, thus giving rise to high-energy photons (gamma rays)
> or other particle-antiparticle pairs. The result of antimatter meeting
> matter is an explosion.[1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AntimatterThere
> is considerable speculation as to why the observable universe is
> apparently composed almost entirely of matter (as opposed to a mixture
> of matter and antimatter), whether there exist other places that are
> almost entirely composed of antimatter instead, and what sorts of
> technology might be possible if antimatter could be harnessed. At this
> time, the apparent asymmetry of matter and antimatter in the visible
> universe is one of the greatest unsolved problems in physics. The
> process by which this asymmetry between particles and antiparticles
> developed is called baryogenesis.A solar flare is a sudden brightening
> observed over the Sun`s surface or the solar limb, which is
> interpreted as a large energy release of up to 6 x 1025 joules of
> energy. These are not visible from Earth`s surface. They are mainly
> followed by a colossal coronal mass ejection also known as a CME[1]
> (about a sixth of the total energy output of the Sun each second or
> 160,000,000,000 megatons of TNT equivalent, over 25,000 times more
> energy than released from the impact of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 with
> Jupiter). The flare ejects clouds of electrons, ions, and atoms
> through the corona of the sun into space. These clouds typically reach
> Earth a day or two after the event.[2] The term is also used to refer
> to similar phenomena in other stars, where the term stellar flare
> applies.
>
> Solar flares affect all layers of the solar atmosphere (photosphere,
> chromosphere, and corona), when the medium plasma is heated to tens of
> millions of kelvins and electrons, protons, and heavier ions are
> accelerated to near the speed of light. They produce radiation across
> the electromagnetic spectrum at all wavelengths, from radio waves to
> gamma rays, although most of the energy goes to frequencies outside
> the visual range and for this reason the majority of the flares are
> not visible to the naked eye and must be observed with special
> instruments. Flares occur in active regions around sunspots, where
> intense magnetic fields penetrate the photosphere to link the corona
> to the solar interior. Flares are powered by the sudden (timescales of
> minutes to tens of minutes) release of magnetic energy stored in the
> corona. The same energy releases may produce coronal mass ejections
> (CME), although the relation between CMEs and flares is still not well
> established.A quark-gluon plasma (QGP) or quark soup[1] is a
> (possible) phase of quantum chromodynamics (QCD) which exists at
> extremely high temperature and/or density. This phase consists of
> asymptotically free quarks and gluons, which are several of the basic
> building blocks of matter.Quark-gluon plasma is a state of matter in
> which the elementary particles that make up the hadrons of baryonic
> matter are freed of their strong attraction for one another under
> extremely high energy densities. These particles are the quarks and
> gluons that compose baryonic matter. [7] In normal matter quarks are
> confined; in the QGP quarks are deconfined. In classical QCD quarks
> are the Fermionic components of mesons and baryons while the gluons
> are considered the Bosonic components of such particles. The gluons
> are the force carriers, or bosons, of the QCD color force, while the
> quarks by themselves are their Fermionic matter counterparts.
>
> Although the experimental high temperatures and densities predicted as
> producing a quark-gluon plasma have been realized in the laboratory,
> the resulting matter does not behave as a quasi-ideal state of free
> quarks and gluons, but, rather, as an almost perfect dense fluid.[Ball
> lightning is an unexplained atmospheric electrical phenomenon. The
> term refers to reports of luminous, usually spherical objects which
> vary from pea-sized to several meters in diameter. It is usually
> associated with thunderstorms, but lasts considerably longer than the
> split-second flash of a lightning bolt. Many of the early reports say
> that the ball eventually explodes, sometimes with fatal consequences,
> leaving behind the odor of sulfur.Wave-guided microwaves
>
> Ohtsuki and Ofuruton[42][43] described producing "plasma fireballs" by
> microwave interference within an air-filled cylindrical cavity fed by
> a rectangular waveguide using a 2.45-GHz, 5-kW (maximum power)
> microwave oscillator.
> A demonstration of the water discharge experiment
> Water discharge experiments
>
> Some scientific groups, including the Max Planck Institute, have
> reportedly produced a ball lightning-type effect by discharging a high-
> voltage capacitor in a tank of water.[44][45]Microwave cavity
> hypothesis
>
> Pyotr Kapitsa proposed that ball lightning is a glow discharge driven
> by microwave radiation that is guided to the ball along lines of
> ionized air from lightning clouds where it is produced. The ball
> serves as a resonant microwave cavity, automatically adjusting its
> radius to the wavelength of the microwave radiation so that resonance
> is maintained.[56][57]
>
> The Handel Maser-Soliton theory of ball lightning hypothesizes that
> the energy source generating the ball lightning is a large (several
> cubic kilometers) atmospheric maser. The ball lightning appears as a
> plasma caviton at the antinodal plane of the microwave radiation from
> the maser.[58]For a globe the amplification factor is 3. A free ball
> of ionized air can amplify the ambient field this much by its own
> conductivity. When this maintains the ionization, the ball is then a
> soliton in the flow of atmospheric electricity. Powell`s kinetic
> theory calculation found that the ball size is set by the second
> Townsend coefficient (the mean free path of conduction electrons) near
> breakdown. Wandering glow discharges are found to occur within certain
> industrial microwave ovens and continue to glow for several seconds
> after power is shut off. Arcs drawn from high-power low-voltage
> microwave generators also are found to exhibit after-glow. Powell
> measured their spectra and found the after-glow to come mostly from
> metastable NO ions, which are long-lived at low temperatures. It
> occurred in air and in nitrous oxide, which possess such metastable
> ions, and not in atmospheres of argon, carbon dioxide, or helium,
> which do not.Around the ring there are over and under pressure systems
> which rotate the vortex around a circular axis in the cross section of
> the torus. At the same time, the ring expands concentrically parallel
> to the ground at low speed. In an open space, the vortex fades and
> finally disappears. If the vortex`s expansion is obstructed, and
> symmetry is broken, the vortex will break into cyclical form. Still
> invisible, and due to the central and surface tension-forces, it
> shrinks to an intermediate state of a cylinder, and finally into a
> ball. The resulting transformation will subsequently become visible
> once the energy has been concentrated to the final spherical stage.
> The ball lightning has the same rotational axis as the rotating
> cylinder. As the vortex has a much smaller vector of energy compared
> to the overall energy of the reactant sonic shock wave, its vector is
> likely fractional to the overall reaction. The vortex, during
> contraction, gives the majority of its energy to form the ball
> lightning, achieving nominal energy loss.
>
> In some observations, the ball lightning appeared to have an extremely
> high energy concentration[63] but this phenomenon hasn`t been
> adequately verified. The present theory concerns only the low energy
> lightning ball form, with centripetal forces and surface tension. The
> visibility of the ball lightning can be associated with
> Electroluminescence, a direct result of the Triboelectric effect from
> materials within the area of the reaction. Static discharge from the
> cylindrical stage imply the existence of contact electrification
> within the object. The direction of the discharges indicate the
> cylinder`s rotation, and resulting rotational axis of the ball
> lightning in accordance to the law of laminar flow. If the ball came
> from the channel, it would have rotate in the opposite direction.The
> declassified Project Condign report concludes that buoyant charged
> plasma formations similar to ball lightning are formed by novel
> physical, electrical, and magnetic phenomena, and that these charged
> plasmas are capable of being transported at enormous speeds under the
> influence and balance of electrical charges in the atmosphere. These
> plasmas appear to originate due to more than one set of weather and
> electrically-charged conditions, the scientific rationale for which is
> incomplete or not fully understood. One suggestion is that meteors
> breaking up in the atmosphere and forming charged plasmas as opposed
> to burning completely or impacting as meteorites could explain some
> instances of the phenomena, in addition to other unknown atmospheric
> events.[70]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown Mountain Lights
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